--1 A Small Finnish Resource Syntax -- -- Aarne Ranta 2003 -- -- This resource grammar contains definitions needed to construct -- indicative, interrogative, and imperative sentences in Finnish. -- -- The following files are presupposed: resource SyntaxFin = MorphoFin ** open Prelude, (CO = Coordination) in { --2 Common Nouns -- -- Simple common nouns are defined as the type $CommNoun$ in $MorphoFin$. --3 Common noun phrases -- In Finnish, common noun phrases behave like simple common nouns, except that -- we need a kind of a *gender* parameter telling if the noun is human or not. -- This parameter regulates determiners such as "joku"/"jokin" ('some') and -- "kuka"/"mikä" ('which'). -- -- A subtle reason forces us to distinguish the parameters of common noun phrases -- from those of morphological common nouns: the parameter value $NPossNom$ is -- syntactically applicable to each of $Sg Nom$, $Pl Nom$, $Sg Gen$. In morphology, -- these forms are always the same ("autoni"), but with complex common nouns, we -- have three different forms: "iso autoni", "isot autoni", "ison autoni". oper CommNoun = {s : NForm => Str ; g : Gender} ; CommNounPhrase = {s : Bool => Number => Case => Str ; g : Gender} ; noun2CommNounPhrase : CommNoun -> CommNounPhrase = \man -> useCN man ** {g = man.g} ; n2n = noun2CommNounPhrase ; useCN : CommonNoun -> {s : Bool => Number => Case => Str} = \auto -> {s = table { True => \\n,c => case of { <_, Nom> => auto.s ! NPossNom ; => auto.s ! NPossNom ; => auto.s ! NPossGenPl ; <_,Transl> => auto.s ! NPossTransl n ; <_,Illat> => auto.s ! NPossIllat n ; _ => auto.s ! NCase n c } ; False => \\n,c => auto.s ! NCase n c } } ; cnNoHum : CommonNoun -> CommNoun = \cn -> cn ** {g = NonHuman} ; cnHum : CommonNoun -> CommNoun = \cn -> cn ** {g = Human} ; --2 Noun phrases -- -- Two forms of *virtual accusative* are needed for nouns in singular, -- the nominative and the genitive one ("ostan talon"/"osta talo"). -- For nouns in plural, only a nominative accusative exist. Pronouns -- have a uniform, special accusative form ("minut", etc). param NPForm = NPCase Case | NPAccNom | NPAccGen ; -- The *person* of a noun phrase is also special, to steer the use of -- possessive suffixes. It expresses a distinction between pronominal and -- non-pronominal noun phrases. The pronominal ones impose possessive suffixes -- in genitival constructions ("minun taloni", "hänen talonsa"), the non-pronominal -- ones don't ("Jussin talo"). As for verbal agreement, non-pronominal noun -- phrases are third-person. NPPerson = NP3 | NPP Person ; oper np2Person : NPPerson -> Person = \n -> case n of { NP3 => P3 ; NPP p => p } ; oper npForm2Case : Number -> NPForm -> Case = \n,f -> case f of { NPCase c => c ; NPAccNom => Nom ; NPAccGen => case n of { Sg => Gen ; Pl => Nom } } ; npForm2PForm : NPForm -> PForm = \f -> case f of { NPCase c => PCase c ; _ => PAcc } ; NounPhrase : Type = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : NPPerson} ; nameNounPhrase : ProperName -> NounPhrase = \jussi -> {s = \\f => jussi.s ! npForm2Case Sg f ; n = Sg ; p = NP3} ; singularNounPhrase : CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \cn -> {s = \\f => cn.s ! False ! Sg ! (npForm2Case Sg f) ; n = Sg ; p = NP3} ; pluralNounPhrase : CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \cn -> {s = \\f => cn.s ! False ! Pl ! (npForm2Case Pl f) ; n = Pl ; p = NP3} ; pronNounPhrase : Pronoun -> NounPhrase = \pron -> {s = \\f => pron.s ! npForm2PForm f ; n = pron.n ; p = NPP pron.p} ; pronNounPhraseNP : Pronoun -> NounPhrase = \pron -> {s = table { NPAccNom => pron.s ! PCase Nom ; NPAccGen => pron.s ! PCase Gen ; f => pron.s ! npForm2PForm f } ; n = pron.n ; p = NPP pron.p } ; -- *Partitive noun phrases* use the partitive instead of the nominative -- and accusative forms. npForm2CasePart : NPForm -> Case = \f -> case f of { NPCase Nom => Part ; NPCase c => c ; _ => Part } ; partNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n, cn -> {s = \\f => cn.s ! False ! n ! (npForm2CasePart f) ; n = n ; p = NP3} ; Numeral : Type = {s : NPForm => Str ; isNum : Bool} ; pronWithNum : Pronoun -> Numeral -> NounPhrase = \me,kaksi -> let meihin = pronNounPhraseNP me in {s = \\c => meihin.s ! c ++ kaksi.s ! c ; n = me.n ; p = NPP me.p --- meidän kahden talo (*talomme) } ; noNum : Numeral = {s = \\_ => [] ; isNum = False} ; --2 Determiners -- -- Most determiners are inflected like nouns. They have an inherent number -- that is given to the noun that is being determined. Determiner : Type = {s : Gender => Case => Str ; n : Number ; isNum : Bool} ; detNounPhrase : Determiner -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \joku, mies -> {s = \\f => let {c = npForm2Case joku.n f} in joku.s ! mies.g ! c ++ mkCaseNum joku.isNum joku.n c (mies.s ! False) ; n = joku.n ; p = NP3 } ; mkCaseNum : Bool -> Number -> Case -> (Number => Case => Str) -> Str = \isNum, n, c, mies -> case of { => mies ! Sg ! Part ; -- kolme miestä => mies ! Sg ! c ; -- kolmelle miehelle _ => mies ! n ! c } ; mkDeterminerGen : Number -> (_,_ : Case => Str) -> Determiner = \n,mika,kuka -> {s = table { NonHuman => mika ; Human => kuka } ; n = n ; isNum = False } ; mkDeterminerGenNum : Numeral -> (_,_ : Case => Str) -> Determiner = \n,mika,kuka -> {s = table { NonHuman => \\c => mika ! c ++ n.s ! NPCase c ; Human => \\c => kuka ! c ++ n.s ! NPCase c } ; n = Pl ; isNum = n.isNum } ; mkDeterminer : Number -> (Case => Str) -> Determiner = \n,kaikki -> mkDeterminerGen n kaikki kaikki ; mkDeterminerNum : Numeral -> (Case => Str) -> Determiner = \n,kaikki -> mkDeterminerGenNum n kaikki kaikki ; jokainenDet = mkDeterminer Sg (caseTable Sg (sNainen "jokaista")) ; kaikkiDet : Numeral -> Determiner = \n -> mkDeterminerNum n (kaikkiPron Pl) ; useimmatDet = mkDeterminer Pl (caseTable Pl (sSuurin "useinta")) ; mikaDet = mkDeterminerGen Sg (mikaInt ! Sg) (kukaInt ! Sg) ; mitkaDet : Numeral -> Determiner = \n -> mkDeterminerGenNum n (mikaInt ! Pl) (kukaInt ! Pl) ; indefNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,mies -> case n of { Sg => singularNounPhrase mies ; -- mies Pl => partNounPhrase plural mies -- miehiä } ; -- The definite and indefinite numeral phrases differ in case, and a numeral -- creates partitive for the nominative. nounPhraseNum : Bool -> Numeral -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \isDef,n,mies -> case n.isNum of { True => { s = table { NPCase Nom => n.s ! NPCase Nom ++ mies.s ! False ! Sg ! Part ; c => n.s ! c ++ mies.s ! False ! Sg ! npForm2Case Sg c } ; n = if_then_else Number isDef Pl Sg ; p = NP3 } ; _ => if_then_else NounPhrase isDef (pluralNounPhrase mies) (partNounPhrase plural mies) } ; defNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,mies -> case n of { Sg => singularNounPhrase mies ; Pl => pluralNounPhrase mies } ; -- Genitives of noun phrases can be used like determiners, to build noun phrases. -- The number argument makes the difference between "Jussin talo" - "Jussin talot". -- The NP person of the 'owner' decides if there is a possessive suffix. npGenDet : Number -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,jussi,talo -> {s = \\c => jussi.s ! NPCase Gen ++ ifPossSuffix talo jussi.p jussi.n (npForm2Case n c) ; n = n ; p = NP3 } ; npGenDetNum : Numeral -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \viisi,jussi,talo -> {s = \\c => jussi.s ! NPCase Gen ++ viisi.s ! c ++ ifPossSuffix talo jussi.p jussi.n ( case viisi.isNum of { True => Part ; _ => npForm2Case Pl c } ) ; n = Pl ; p = NP3 } ; ifPossSuffix : CommNounPhrase -> NPPerson -> Number -> Case -> Str = \talo,np,n,c -> case np of { NP3 => talo.s ! False ! n ! c ; NPP p => talo.s ! True ! n ! c ++ possSuffix ! n ! p } ; -- *Bare plural noun phrases*, like "koivut" in "koivut ovat valkoisia", -- are similar to definite plurals. plurDet : CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = pluralNounPhrase ; -- Constructions like "huomio että kaksi on parillinen" are formed at the -- first place as common nouns, so that one can also have -- "kaikki ehdotukset että...". nounThatSentence : CommNounPhrase -> Sentence -> CommNounPhrase = \idea,x -> {s = \\p,n,c => idea.s ! p ! n ! c ++ "että" ++ x.s ; g = idea.g } ; -- The existential structure is simple. onNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Sentence = \kaljaa -> ss (kaljaa.s ! NPCase Nom ++ "on") ; --2 Adjectives -- -- Adjectival phrases are used either as attributes or in predicative position. -- In the attributive position, all cases occur; in the predicative position, only -- the nominative, partitive, translative, and essive - but we ignore this -- restriction for simplicity. The important thing with the parameter is to -- regulate the word order of complex adjectival phrases: cf. predicative -- "(kuusi on) jaollinen kolmella" vs. attributive "kolmella jaollinen (luku)". -- In comparatives, the whole construction is affected: "suurempi kuin kolme" -- vs. "kolmea suurempi". (Actually, in the predicative position, the two -- are in free variation, the distinguished one being the normal choice: -- "kuusi on kolmella jaollinen" is possible, but not quite neutral.) param AdjPos = APred | AAttr ; oper AdjPhrase : Type = {s : AdjPos => AForm => Str} ; adj2adjPhrase : Adjective -> AdjPhrase = \uusi -> {s = \\_ => uusi.s} ; --3 Comparison adjectives -- -- Each of the comparison forms has a characteristic use: -- -- Positive forms are used alone, as adjectival phrases ("iso"). positAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> AdjPhrase = \iso -> adj2adjPhrase {s = iso.s ! Pos} ; -- Comparative forms are used with an object of comparison, as -- adjectival phrases ("isompi kuin te"/"teitä isompi"). comparAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \iso, te -> {s = let {teitaisompi : AForm => Str = \\a => te.s ! NPCase Part ++ iso.s ! Comp ! a} in table { APred => variants { \\a => iso.s ! Comp ! a ++ kuinConj ++ te.s ! NPCase Nom ; teitaisompi } ; AAttr => teitaisompi } } ; -- Superlative forms are used with a modified noun, picking out the -- maximal representative of a domain ("isoin talo"). superlNounPhrase : AdjDegr -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \iso,talo -> {s = \\np => let {c = npForm2Case Sg np} in iso.s ! Sup ! AN (NCase Sg c) ++ talo.s ! False ! Sg ! c ; n = Sg ; p = NP3 } ; --3 Two-place adjectives -- -- A two-place adjective is an adjective with a case used after (or before) -- the complement. The case can be the genitival accusative, which is different -- in the singular and the plural ("rajan ylittävä"/"rajat ylittävä"). -- The order of the adjective and its argument depends on the case: the local -- cases favour Adj + Noun in the predicative position ("hyvä painissa", -- "tyytyväinen vaalitulokseen", "jaollinen kolmella"), which is not a possible -- order for the accusative case. AdjCompl = Adjective ** {c : NPForm} ; complAdj : AdjCompl -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \hyva,paini -> let { hyvat : AForm => Str = \\a => hyva.s ! a ; painissa : Str = paini.s ! hyva.c } in {s = table { AAttr => \\a => painissa ++ hyvat ! a ; APred => \\a => if_then_else Str (isLocalNPForm hyva.c) (variants { hyvat ! a ++ painissa ; painissa ++ hyvat ! a } ) (painissa ++ hyvat ! a) } } ; isLocalNPForm : NPForm -> Bool = \c -> case c of { NPCase Iness => True ; NPCase Elat => True ; NPCase Illat => True ; NPCase Adess => True ; NPCase Ablat => True ; NPCase Allat => True ; _ => False } ; --3 Modification of common nouns -- -- The two main functions of adjective are in predication ("Jussi on iso") -- and in modification ("iso mies"). Predication will be defined -- later, in the chapter on verbs. -- -- Modification uses the attributive form of an adjectival phrase. -- The adjective always comes before the noun. The possessive suffix is -- given to the noun. modCommNounPhrase : AdjPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \iso,mies -> {s = \\p,n,c => iso.s ! AAttr ! AN (NCase n c) ++ mies.s ! p ! n ! c ; g = mies.g } ; --2 Function expressions -- A function expression is a common noun together with the -- case taken by its argument ("x'n vaimo"). -- The type is analogous to two-place adjectives and transitive verbs; -- but here the genitive is by far the commonest case. The possessive suffix -- is then needed with pronominal arguments. Function = CommNounPhrase ** {c : NPForm} ; -- The application of a function gives, in the first place, a common noun: -- "Jussi vaimo/vaimot". From this, other rules of the resource grammar -- give noun phrases, such as "Jussi vaimo", "Jussin vaimot", -- "Jussin ja Marin äidit", and "Jussin ja Marin äiti" (the -- latter two corresponding to distributive and collective functions, -- respectively). Semantics will eventually tell when each -- of the readings is meaningful. appFunComm : Function -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \vaimo, jussi -> {s = \\p,n,c => case vaimo.c of { NPCase Gen => jussi.s ! NPCase Gen ++ ifPossSuffix vaimo jussi.p jussi.n c ; h => vaimo.s ! False ! n ! c ++ jussi.s ! h } ; g = vaimo.g } ; -- Notice the switched word order in other cases than the genitive, e.g. -- "veli Jussille". -- -- It is possible to use a function word as a common noun; the semantics is -- often existential or indexical. funAsCommNounPhrase : Function -> CommNounPhrase = \x -> x ; -- The following is an aggregate corresponding to function application -- producing "John's mother" and "the mother of John". It does not appear in the -- resource grammar API as a primitive. appFun : Bool -> Function -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \coll, vaimo,jussi -> let {n = jussi.n ; nf = if_then_else Number coll Sg n} in npGenDet nf jussi vaimo ; -- The commonest case is functions with the genitive case. funGen : CommNounPhrase -> Function = \vaimo -> vaimo ** {c = NPCase Gen} ; -- Two-place functions add one argument place. Function2 = Function ** {c2 : NPForm} ; -- There application starts by filling the first place. appFun2 : Function2 -> NounPhrase -> Function = \juna, turku -> {s = \\p,n,c => juna.s ! False ! n ! c ++ turku.s ! juna.c ; g = juna.g ; c = juna.c2 } ; --2 Verbs -- --3 Verb phrases -- -- Verb phrases are discontinuous: the two parts of a verb phrase are -- (s) an inflected verb, (s2) a complement. -- For instance: "on" - "kaunis" ; "ei" - "ole kaunis" ; "sisältää" - "rikkiä". -- Moreover, a subject case is needed, because of passive and 'have' verb -- phrases ("minä uin" ; "minut valitaan" ; "minua odotetaan" ; "minulla on jano"). VerbPhrase = Verb ** {s2 : VForm => Str ; c : ComplCase} ; VerbGroup = {s,s2 : Bool => VForm => Str ; c : ComplCase} ; predVerbGroup : Bool -> VerbGroup -> VerbPhrase = \b,vg -> { s = vg.s ! b ; s2 = vg.s2 ! b ; c = vg.c } ; vp2vg : (Bool -> VerbPhrase) -> VerbGroup = \f -> { s = \\b => (f b).s ; s2 = \\b => (f b).s2 ; c = (f True).c } ; -- The normal subject case is the nominative. nomVerbPhrase : (p,n : {s,s2 : VForm => Str}) -> VerbGroup = \pos,neg -> {s = table {True => pos.s ; False => neg.s} ; s2 = table {True => pos.s2 ; False => neg.s2} ; c = CCase Nom } ; -- From the inflection table, we select the finite form as function -- of person and number: indicVerb : Verb -> Person -> Number -> Str = \v,p,n -> v.s ! Ind n p ; -- A simple verb can be made into a verb phrase with an empty complement, e.g. -- "ui" - []. -- There are two versions, depending on if we want to negate the verb. -- In the negated form, the negative verb "ei" becomes the verb, and the -- complement is a special infinite form of the verb (usually similar to the -- 2nd person singular imperative): "ei" - "ui". -- -- N.B. negation is *not* a function applicable to a verb phrase, since -- double negations with "ei" are not grammatical. predVerb : Verb -> VerbGroup = \walk -> let { noCompl : {s2 : VForm => Str} = {s2 = \\_ => []} ; infCompl : {s2 : VForm => Str} = {s2 = table { Imper Pl => walk.s ! ImpNegPl ; _ => walk.s ! vFormNeg } } } in nomVerbPhrase (walk ** noCompl) (verbEi ** infCompl) ; -- (N.B. local definitions workaround for poor type inference in GF 1.2). -- Sometimes we want to extract the verb part of a verb phrase. Not strictly -- necessary since this is a consequence of record subtyping. verbOfPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Verb = \v -> {s = v.s} ; -- Verb phrases can also be formed from adjectives ("on vanha"), -- common nouns ("on mies"), and noun phrases ("on Jussi"). -- The third rule is overgenerating: "on jokainen mies" has to be ruled out -- on semantic grounds. -- -- For adjectives and common nouns, notice the case difference in the complement -- depending on number: "on kaunis" - "ovat kauniita". We ignore the forms -- "on kaunista", used with mass terms, and "ovat kauniit", used in -- constructions of the "plurale tantum" kind. The adjective rule can be defined -- in terms of the common noun rule. predAdjective : AdjPhrase -> VerbGroup = \iso -> let isot : CommNounPhrase = { s = \\_,n,c => iso.s ! APred ! AN (NCase n c) ; g = NonHuman } in predCommNoun isot ; predCommNoun : CommNounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \mies -> let { miehia : VForm => Str = \\v => case vform2number v of { Sg => mies.s ! False ! Sg ! Nom ; Pl => mies.s ! False ! Pl ! Part } ; olemiehia : VForm => Str = \\v => verbOlla.s ! vFormNeg ++ miehia ! v } in nomVerbPhrase (verbOlla ** {s2 = miehia}) (verbEi ** {s2 = olemiehia}) ; predNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \jussi -> let {jussia : Bool => Number => Case => Str = \\_,_,_ => jussi.s ! NPCase Nom} in predCommNoun {s = jussia ; g = Human} ; --- gender does not matter predAdverb : Adverb -> VerbGroup = \pois -> let {poissa : Bool => Number => Case => Str = \\_,_,_ => pois.s} in predCommNoun {s = poissa ; g = NonHuman} ; --- gender does not matter --3 Transitive verbs -- -- Transitive verbs are verbs with a case and, possibly, a preposition -- or a postposition for the complement, -- in analogy with two-place adjectives and functions. -- One might prefer to use the term "2-place verb", since -- "transitive" traditionally means that the inherent preposition is empty. -- Such a verb is one with a *direct object*. param ComplCase = CCase Case | CAcc ; oper TransVerb : Type = Verb ** {s3, s4 : Str ; c : ComplCase} ; -- The rule for using transitive verbs is the complementization rule. -- -- N.B. One or both of the pre- and postposition are empty. complTransVerb : TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \ostaa,talo -> let { ostan = predVerb ostaa ; talon : Bool => VForm => Str = \\b,v => ostaa.s3 ++ talo.s ! complementCase b ostaa.c v ++ ostaa.s4 } in {s = ostan.s ; s2 = \\b,v => ostan.s2 ! b ! v ++ talon ! b ! v ; c = CCase Nom } ; -- N.B. If the case is accusative, it becomes partitive in negated verb phrases. -- The choice between the nominative and genitive accusatives depends on the verb -- form. complementCase : Bool -> ComplCase -> VForm -> NPForm = \b,c,v -> case c of { CCase k => NPCase k ; CAcc => case b of { True => case v of { Inf => NPAccNom ; Ind _ _ => NPAccGen ; Imper _ => NPAccNom ; ImpNegPl => NPCase Part ; Pass True => NPAccNom ; Pass False => NPCase Part } ; _ => NPCase Part } } ; -- Verbs that take their object with a case other than the accusative, -- without pre- or postposition: mkTransVerbCase : Verb -> Case -> TransVerb = \nauraa,c -> nauraa ** {s3 = [] ; s4 = [] ; c = CCase c} ; -- Verbs that take direct object with the accusative: mkTransVerbDir : Verb -> TransVerb = \ostaa -> ostaa ** {s3 = [] ; s4 = [] ; c = CAcc} ; -- Most two-place verbs can be used passively; the object case need not be -- the accusative, and it becomes the subject case in the passive sentence. passTransVerb : TransVerb -> VerbGroup = \tavata -> {s = \\b,_ => if_then_else Str b (tavata.s ! Pass b) "ei" ; s2 = \\b,_ => if_then_else Str b [] (tavata.s ! Pass b) ; c = tavata.c } ; -- The API function does not demand that the verb is two-place. -- Therefore, we can only give it the accusative case, as default. passVerb : Verb -> VerbGroup = \uida -> passTransVerb (mkTransVerbDir uida) ; -- Transitive verbs can be used elliptically as verbs. The semantics -- is left to applications. The definition is trivial, due to record -- subtyping. transAsVerb : TransVerb -> Verb = \juoda -> juoda ; -- The 'real' Finnish passive is unpersonal, equivalent to the -- "man" construction in German. It is formed by inflecting the -- bare verb phrase in passive, and putting the complement before -- the verb ("auttaa minua" - "minua autetaan"). passPredVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Sentence = \auttaaminua -> let {p = Pass True} in {s = auttaaminua.s2 ! p ++ auttaaminua.s ! p} ; -- *Ditransitive verbs* are verbs with three argument places. -- We treat so far only the rule in which the ditransitive -- verb takes both complements to form a verb phrase. DitransVerb = TransVerb ** {s5, s6 : Str ; c2 : ComplCase} ; complDitransVerb : DitransVerb -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \ostaa,talo,me -> let { ostan = predVerb ostaa ; talon : Bool => VForm => Str = \\b,v => ostaa.s3 ++ talo.s ! complementCase b ostaa.c v ++ ostaa.s4 ; meille : Bool => VForm => Str = \\b,v => ostaa.s5 ++ me.s ! complementCase b ostaa.c2 v ++ ostaa.s6 } in { s = ostan.s ; s2 = \\b,v => ostan.s2 ! b ! v ++ talon ! b ! v ++ meille ! b ! v ; c = CCase Nom } ; --2 Adverbials -- -- Adverbials are not inflected (we ignore comparison, and treat -- compared adverbials as separate expressions; this could be done another way). Adverb : Type = SS ; -- This rule adds the adverbial as a prefix or a suffix to the complement, -- in free variation. adVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Adverb -> VerbPhrase = \laulaa, hyvin -> {s = laulaa.s ; s2 = \\v => bothWays (laulaa.s2 ! v) hyvin.s ; c = laulaa.c } ; advAdjPhrase : Adverb -> AdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \liian, iso -> {s = \\p,a => liian.s ++ iso.s ! p ! a } ; -- Adverbials are typically generated by case, prepositions, or postpositions. Preposition : Type = {s : Str ; c : Case ; isPrep : Bool} ; prepPrep : Str -> Case -> Preposition = \ennen,gen -> {s = ennen ; c = gen ; isPrep = True} ; prepPostp : Str -> Case -> Preposition = \takana,gen -> {s = takana ; c = gen ; isPrep = False} ; prepPostpGen : Str -> Preposition = \takana -> prepPostp takana Gen ; prepCase : Case -> Preposition = \iness -> {s = [] ; c = iness ; isPrep = False} ; prepPhrase : Preposition -> NounPhrase -> Adverb = \takana, talo -> let talon = talo.s ! NPCase takana.c in ss (if_then_Str takana.isPrep (takana.s ++ talon) (talon ++ takana.s)) ; -- This is a source of the "mann with a telescope" ambiguity, and may produce -- strange things, like "autot aina" (while "autot tänään" is OK). -- Semantics will have to make finer distinctions among adverbials. advCommNounPhrase : CommNounPhrase -> Adverb -> CommNounPhrase = \auto,nyt -> {s = \\b,n,c => auto.s ! b ! n ! c ++ nyt.s ; g = auto.g } ; --2 Sentences -- -- Sentences are not inflected in this fragment of Finnish without tense. Sentence : Type = SS ; -- This is the traditional $S -> NP VP$ rule. It takes care of -- agreement between subject and verb. Recall that the VP may already -- contain negation. predVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Sentence = \jussi,uida -> let { p = np2Person jussi.p ; c = complementCase True uida.c Inf --- True,Inf don't matter here } in ss (jussi.s ! c ++ uida.s ! Ind jussi.n p ++ uida.s2 ! Ind jussi.n p) ; --3 Sentence-complement verbs -- -- Sentence-complement verbs take sentences as complements. SentenceVerb : Type = Verb ; -- To generate "sanoo että Jussi ui" / "ei sano että Jussi ui" complSentVerb : SentenceVerb -> Sentence -> VerbGroup = \sanoa,jussiui -> let { sanon = predVerb sanoa } in { s = sanon.s ; s2 = \\b,v => sanon.s2 ! b ! v ++ conjEtta ++ jussiui.s ; c = CCase Nom } ; --3 Verb-complement verbs -- -- Verb-complement verbs take verb phrases as complements. -- In Finnish, they can be ordinary verbs ("haluta", "yrittää"), but -- also verbs with a special subject case ("täytyy", "on pakko"). VerbVerb : Type = Verb ** {c : ComplCase} ; complVerbVerb : VerbVerb -> VerbGroup -> VerbGroup = \haluta, uida -> let hc = haluta.c ; haluan = case hc of { CCase Nom => predVerb haluta ; _ => predVerb {s = table { Imper Sg => haluta.s ! Imper Sg ; ImpNegPl => haluta.s ! ImpNegPl ; _ => haluta.s ! Ind Sg P3 } } } in { s = haluan.s ; s2 = \\b,v => haluan.s2 ! b ! v ++ uida.s ! True ! Inf ++ uida.s2 ! True ! Inf ; c = hc } ; nomVerbVerb : Verb -> VerbVerb = \v -> v ** {c = CCase Nom} ; --2 Sentences missing noun phrases -- -- This is one instance of Gazdar's *slash categories*, corresponding to his -- $S/NP$. -- We cannot have - nor would we want to have - a productive slash-category former. -- Perhaps a handful more will be needed. -- -- Notice that the slash category has a similar relation to sentences as -- transitive verbs have to verbs: it's like a *sentence taking a complement*. -- -- Interestingly, the distinction between prepositions and postpositions -- neutralizes: even prepositions are attached after relative and interrogative -- pronouns: "jota ennen" cf. "ennen talvea". Otherwise, the category and -- the rules are very similar to transitive verbs. Notice that the case gets -- fixed by the Boolean parameter and the subject. SentenceSlashNounPhrase = Sentence ** {s2 : Str ; c : Case} ; slashTransVerb : Bool -> NounPhrase -> TransVerb -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase = \b,jussi,ostaa -> predVerbPhrase jussi (predVerbGroup b (predVerb ostaa)) ** { s2 = ostaa.s3 ++ ostaa.s4 ; c = npForm2Case jussi.n (complementCase b ostaa.c (Ind jussi.n (np2Person jussi.p))) } ; --2 Relative pronouns and relative clauses -- -- As described in $types.Fin.gf$, relative pronouns are inflected like -- common nouns, in number and case. -- -- We get the simple relative pronoun "joka" from $morpho.Fin.gf$. identRelPron : RelPron = relPron ; funRelPron : Function -> RelPron -> RelPron = \vaimo, joka -> {s = \\n,c => joka.s ! n ! npForm2Case n vaimo.c ++ vaimo.s ! False ! n ! c} ; -- Relative clauses can be formed from both verb phrases ("joka ui") and -- slash expressions ("jonka sinä näet", "jonka kautta sinä käyt"). RelClause : Type = {s : Number => Str} ; relVerbPhrase : RelPron -> VerbPhrase -> RelClause = \joka,ui -> {s = \\n => joka.s ! n ! npForm2Case n (complementCase True ui.c Inf) ++ ui.s ! Ind n P3 ++ ui.s2 ! Ind n P3} ; relSlash : RelPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> RelClause = \joka,saat -> {s = \\n => joka.s ! n ! saat.c ++ saat.s2 ++ saat.s} ; -- A 'degenerate' relative clause is the one often used in mathematics, e.g. -- "luku x siten että x on parillinen". relSuch : Sentence -> RelClause = \A -> {s = \\_ => advSiten ++ conjEtta ++ A.s} ; -- N.B. the construction "sellainen että" is not possible with the present -- typing of the relative clause, since it should also be inflected in -- case. Ordinary relative clauses have a fixed case. -- -- The main use of relative clauses is to modify common nouns. -- The result is a common noun, out of which noun phrases can be formed -- by determiners. We use no comma before these relative clauses, even though -- conservative standard Finnish does. modRelClause : CommNounPhrase -> RelClause -> CommNounPhrase = \mies,jokaui -> {s = \\b,n,c => mies.s ! b ! n ! c ++ jokaui.s ! n ; g = mies.g } ; -- N.B: the possessive suffix, if attached here, comes to wrong place! Solution: -- make $CommNounPhrase$ discontinuos. --2 Interrogative pronouns -- -- If relative pronouns are like common nouns (and adjectives), -- interrogative pronouns are like noun phrases, having a fixed number. -- They also need to handle an NP-like accusative case. But person is -- not needed, since it is uniformly $NP3$. IntPron : Type = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number} ; -- In analogy with relative pronouns, we have a rule for applying a function -- to a relative pronoun to create a new one. funIntPron : Function -> IntPron -> IntPron = \vaimo,kuka -> {s = \\c => kuka.s ! vaimo.c ++ vaimo.s ! False ! kuka.n ! npForm2Case kuka.n c ; n = kuka.n } ; -- There is a variety of simple interrogative pronouns: -- "mikä talo" / "kuka mies", "kuka", "mikä". The construction with a noun -- is the reason why nouns in Finnish need a gender. nounIntPron : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> IntPron = \n, talo -> {s = \\c => let {nc = npForm2Case n c} in mikakukaInt ! talo.g ! n ! nc ++ talo.s ! False ! n ! nc ; n = n } ; intPronWho : Number -> IntPron = \num -> { s = \\c => mikakukaInt ! Human ! num ! (npForm2Case num c) ; n = num } ; intPronWhat : Number -> IntPron = \num -> { s = \\c => mikakukaInt ! NonHuman ! num ! (npForm2Case num c) ; n = num } ; --2 Utterances -- By utterances we mean complete phrases, such as -- 'can be used as moves in a language game': indicatives, questions, imperative, -- and one-word utterances. The rules are far from complete. -- -- N.B. we have not included rules for texts, which we find we cannot say much -- about on this level. In semantically rich GF grammars, texts, dialogues, etc, -- will of course play an important role as categories not reducible to utterances. -- An example is proof texts, whose semantics show a dependence between premises -- and conclusions. Another example is intersentential anaphora. Utterance = SS ; indicUtt : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> ss (x.s ++ stopPunct) ; interrogUtt : Question -> Utterance = \x -> ss (x.s ++ questPunct) ; --2 Questions -- -- Questions are either direct or indirect, but the forms in Finnish are -- always identical. So we don't need a $QuestForm$ parameter as in other languages. oper Question = SS ; --3 Yes-no questions -- -- Yes-no questions are formed by inversed predication, with the clitic "ko" / "kö" -- particle attached to the verb part of the verb phrase. questVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \jussi,ui -> let {np = Ind jussi.n (np2Person jussi.p)} in ss (ui.s ! np ++ koPart ++ jussi.s ! complementCase True ui.c Inf ++ ui.s2 ! np); onkoNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Question = \kaljaa -> ss ("onko" ++ kaljaa.s ! NPCase Nom) ; --3 Wh-questions -- -- Wh-questions are of two kinds: ones that are like $NP - VP$ sentences -- ("kuka ui?") others that are line $S/NP - NP$ sentences ("kenet sinä tapaat?"). intVerbPhrase : IntPron -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \kuka,ui -> predVerbPhrase (kuka ** {p = NP3}) ui ; intSlash : IntPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> Question = \kuka,tapaat -> ss (kuka.s ! NPCase tapaat.c ++ tapaat.s2 ++ tapaat.s) ; --3 Interrogative adverbials -- -- These adverbials will be defined in the lexicon: they include -- "koska", "missä", "kuinka", "miksi", etc, which are all invariant one-word -- expressions. In addition, they can be formed by adding cases and postpositions -- to interrogative pronouns, in the same way as adverbials are formed -- from noun phrases; notice that even prepositions are used as postpositions -- when attached to interrogative pronouns. IntAdverb = SS ; prepIntAdverb : Str -> Case -> IntPron -> IntAdverb = \ennen,c,kuka -> ss (kuka.s ! NPCase c ++ ennen) ; -- A question adverbial can be applied to anything, and whether this makes -- sense is a semantic question. The syntax is very simple: just prefix the -- adverbial to the predication. questAdverbial : IntAdverb -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \miksi, jussi, ui -> cc2 miksi (predVerbPhrase jussi ui) ; --2 Imperatives -- -- We only consider second-person imperatives. Imperative = SS1 Number ; imperVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Imperative = \ui -> {s = \\n => ui.s ! Imper n ++ ui.s2 ! Imper n} ; imperUtterance : Number -> Imperative -> Utterance = \n,I -> ss (I.s ! n ++ exclPunct) ; --2 Sentence adverbials -- -- This class covers adverbials such as "muuten", "siksi", which are prefixed -- to a sentence to form a phrase. advSentence : Adverb -> Sentence -> Utterance = \siksi,sataa -> ss (siksi.s ++ sataa.s ++ ".") ; --2 Coordination -- -- Coordination is to some extent orthogonal to the rest of syntax, and -- has been treated in a generic way in the module $CO$ in the file -- $coordination.gf$. The overall structure is independent of category, -- but there can be differences in parameter dependencies. -- --3 Conjunctions -- -- Coordinated phrases are built by using conjunctions, which are either -- simple ("ja", "tai") or distributed ("sekä - että", "joko - tai"). -- -- The conjunction has an inherent number, which is used when conjoining -- noun phrases: "Jussi ja Mari ovat..." vs. "Jussi tai Mari on..."; in the -- case of "tai", the result is however plural if any of the disjuncts is. Conjunction = CO.Conjunction ** {n : Number} ; ConjunctionDistr = CO.ConjunctionDistr ** {n : Number} ; --3 Coordinating sentences -- -- We need a category of lists of sentences. It is a discontinuous -- category, the parts corresponding to 'init' and 'last' segments -- (rather than 'head' and 'tail', because we have to keep track of the slot between -- the last two elements of the list). A list has at least two elements. ListSentence : Type = SD2 ; twoSentence : (_,_ : Sentence) -> ListSentence = CO.twoSS ; consSentence : ListSentence -> Sentence -> ListSentence = CO.consSS CO.comma ; -- To coordinate a list of sentences by a simple conjunction, we place -- it between the last two elements; commas are put in the other slots, -- e.g. "du rauchst, er trinkt und ich esse". conjunctSentence : Conjunction -> ListSentence -> Sentence = \c,xs -> ss (CO.conjunctX c xs) ; -- To coordinate a list of sentences by a distributed conjunction, we place -- the first part (e.g. "either") in front of the first element, the second -- part ("or") between the last two elements, and commas in the other slots. -- For sentences this is really not used. conjunctDistrSentence : ConjunctionDistr -> ListSentence -> Sentence = \c,xs -> ss (CO.conjunctDistrX c xs) ; --3 Coordinating adjective phrases -- -- The structure is the same as for sentences. Parameters are passed to components. ListAdjPhrase : Type = {s1,s2 : AdjPos => AForm => Str} ; twoAdjPhrase : (_,_ : AdjPhrase) -> ListAdjPhrase = \x,y -> CO.twoTable2 AdjPos AForm x y ; consAdjPhrase : ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase -> ListAdjPhrase = \xs,x -> CO.consTable2 AdjPos AForm CO.comma xs x ; conjunctAdjPhrase : Conjunction -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctTable2 AdjPos AForm c xs ; conjunctDistrAdjPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctDistrTable2 AdjPos AForm c xs ; --3 Coordinating noun phrases -- -- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is either always plural -- or plural if any of the components is, depending on the conjunction. ListNounPhrase : Type = {s1,s2 : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : NPPerson} ; twoNounPhrase : (_,_ : NounPhrase) -> ListNounPhrase = \x,y -> CO.twoTable NPForm x y ** {n = conjNumber x.n y.n ; p = conjPerson x.p y.p} ; consNounPhrase : ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> ListNounPhrase = \xs,x -> CO.consTable NPForm CO.comma xs x ** {n = conjNumber xs.n x.n ; p = conjPerson xs.p x.p} ; conjunctNounPhrase : Conjunction -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctTable NPForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; p = xs.p} ; conjunctDistrNounPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctDistrTable NPForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; p = xs.p} ; -- We have to define a calculus of numbers of persons. For numbers, -- it is like the conjunction with $Pl$ corresponding to $False$. conjNumber : Number -> Number -> Number = \m,n -> case of { => Sg ; _ => Pl } ; -- For persons, we let the latter argument win ("either you or I am absent" -- but "either I or you are absent"). This is not quite clear. conjPerson : NPPerson -> NPPerson -> NPPerson = \_,p -> p ; --2 Subjunction -- -- Subjunctions ("kun", "jos", etc) -- are a different way to combine sentences than conjunctions. -- The main clause can be a sentences, an imperatives, or a question, -- but the subjoined clause must be a sentence. -- -- There are uniformly two variant word orders, e.g. -- "jos poltat minä suutun" -- and "minä suutun jos poltat". Subjunction = SS ; subjunctSentence : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Sentence -> Sentence = \if, A, B -> ss (subjunctVariants if A.s B.s) ; subjunctImperative : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Imperative -> Imperative = \if, A, B -> {s = \\n => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! n)} ; subjunctQuestion : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Question -> Question = \if, A, B -> {s = subjunctVariants if A.s B.s} ; subjunctVariants : Subjunction -> Str -> Str -> Str = \if,A,B -> variants {if.s ++ A ++ commaPunct ++ B ; B ++ commaPunct ++ if.s ++ A} ; subjunctVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Subjunction -> Sentence -> VerbPhrase = \V, if, A -> adVerbPhrase V (ss (if.s ++ A.s)) ; --2 One-word utterances -- -- An utterance can consist of one phrase of almost any category, -- the limiting case being one-word utterances. These -- utterances are often (but not always) in what can be called the -- default form of a category, e.g. the nominative. -- This list is far from exhaustive. useNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Utterance = \john -> postfixSS stopPunct (defaultNounPhrase john) ; useCommonNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> Utterance = \n,car -> useNounPhrase (indefNounPhrase n car) ; -- Here are some default forms. defaultNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> SS = \john -> ss (john.s ! NPCase Nom) ; defaultQuestion : Question -> SS = \whoareyou -> whoareyou ; defaultSentence : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> x ; } ;