--# -path=.:../../prelude --1 A Small English Resource Syntax -- -- Aarne Ranta 2002 -- -- This resource grammar contains definitions needed to construct -- indicative, interrogative, and imperative sentences in English. -- -- The following files are presupposed: resource SyntaxEng = MorphoEng ** open Prelude, (CO = Coordination) in { --2 Common Nouns -- -- Simple common nouns are defined as the type $CommNoun$ in $morpho.Deu.gf$. --3 Common noun phrases -- To the common nouns of morphology, -- we add natural gender (human/nonhuman) which is needed in syntactic -- combinations (e.g. "man who runs" - "program which runs"). oper CommNoun = CommonNoun ** {g : Gender} ; CommNounPhrase = CommNoun ; noun2CommNounPhrase : CommNoun -> CommNounPhrase = \man -> man ; cnGen : CommonNoun -> Gender -> CommNoun = \cn,g -> cn ** {g = g} ; cnHum : CommonNoun -> CommNoun = \cn -> cnGen cn Hum ; cnNoHum : CommonNoun -> CommNoun = \cn -> cnGen cn NoHum ; --2 Noun phrases -- -- The worst case is pronouns, which have inflection in the possessive forms. -- Proper names are a special case. NounPhrase : Type = Pronoun ; nameNounPhrase : ProperName -> NounPhrase = \john -> {s = \\c => john.s ! toCase c ; n = Sg ; p = P3} ; nameNounPhrasePl : ProperName -> NounPhrase = \john -> {s = \\c => john.s ! toCase c ; n = Pl ; p = P3} ; -- The following construction has to be refined for genitive forms: -- "we two", "us two" are OK, but "our two" is not. Numeral : Type = {s : Case => Str} ; pronWithNum : Pronoun -> Numeral -> Pronoun = \we,two -> {s = \\c => we.s ! c ++ two.s ! toCase c ; n = we.n ; p = we.p} ; noNum : Numeral = {s = \\_ => []} ; --2 Determiners -- -- Determiners are inflected according to the nouns they determine. -- The determiner is not inflected. Determiner : Type = {s : Str ; n : Number} ; detNounPhrase : Determiner -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \every, man -> {s = \\c => every.s ++ man.s ! every.n ! toCase c ; n = every.n ; p = P3 } ; mkDeterminer : Number -> Str -> Determiner = \n,the -> mkDeterminerNum n the noNum ; mkDeterminerNum : Number -> Str -> Numeral -> Determiner = \n,det,two -> {s = det ++ two.s ! Nom ; n = n } ; everyDet = mkDeterminer Sg "every" ; allDet = mkDeterminerNum Pl "all" ; mostDet = mkDeterminer Pl "most" ; aDet = mkDeterminer Sg artIndef ; plDet = mkDeterminerNum Pl [] ; theSgDet = mkDeterminer Sg "the" ; thePlDet = mkDeterminerNum Pl "the" ; anySgDet = mkDeterminer Sg "any" ; anyPlDet = mkDeterminerNum Pl "any" ; whichSgDet = mkDeterminer Sg "which" ; whichPlDet = mkDeterminerNum Pl "which" ; whichDet = whichSgDet ; --- API indefNoun : Number -> CommNoun -> Str = \n,man -> (indefNounPhrase n man).s ! NomP ; indefNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n -> indefNounPhraseNum n noNum ; indefNounPhraseNum : Number -> Numeral ->CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,two,man -> {s = \\c => case n of { Sg => artIndef ++ two.s ! Nom ++ man.s ! n ! toCase c ; Pl => two.s ! Nom ++ man.s ! n ! toCase c } ; n = n ; p = P3 } ; defNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n -> defNounPhraseNum n noNum ; defNounPhraseNum : Number -> Numeral -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,two,car -> {s = \\c => artDef ++ two.s ! Nom ++ car.s ! n ! toCase c ; n = n ; p = P3 } ; -- Genitives of noun phrases can be used like determiners, to build noun phrases. -- The number argument makes the difference between "my house" - "my houses". -- -- We have the variation "the car of John / the car of John's / John's car" npGenDet : Number -> Numeral -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \n,two,john,car -> {s = \\c => variants { artDef ++ two.s ! Nom ++ car.s ! n ! Nom ++ "of" ++ john.s ! GenSP ; john.s ! GenP ++ two.s ! Nom ++ car.s ! n ! toCase c } ; n = n ; p = P3 } ; -- *Bare plural noun phrases* like "men", "good cars", are built without a -- determiner word. plurDet : CommNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \cn -> {s = \\c => cn.s ! plural ! toCase c ; p = P3 ; n = Pl } ; -- Constructions like "the idea that two is even" are formed at the -- first place as common nouns, so that one can also have "a suggestion that...". nounThatSentence : CommNounPhrase -> Sentence -> CommNounPhrase = \idea,x -> {s = \\n,c => idea.s ! n ! c ++ "that" ++ x.s ; g = idea.g } ; --2 Adjectives -- -- Adjectival phrases have a parameter $p$ telling if they are prefixed ($True$) or -- postfixed (complex APs). AdjPhrase : Type = Adjective ** {p : Bool} ; adj2adjPhrase : Adjective -> AdjPhrase = \new -> new ** {p = True} ; simpleAdjPhrase : Str -> AdjPhrase = \French -> adj2adjPhrase (regAdjective French) ; --3 Comparison adjectives -- -- Each of the comparison forms has a characteristic use: -- -- Positive forms are used alone, as adjectival phrases ("big"). positAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> AdjPhrase = \big -> adj2adjPhrase {s = big.s ! Pos} ; -- Comparative forms are used with an object of comparison, as -- adjectival phrases ("bigger then you"). comparAdjPhrase : AdjDegr -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \big, you -> {s = \\a => big.s ! Comp ! a ++ "than" ++ you.s ! NomP ; p = False } ; -- Superlative forms are used with a modified noun, picking out the -- maximal representative of a domain ("the biggest house"). superlNounPhrase : AdjDegr -> CommNoun -> NounPhrase = \big, house -> {s = \\c => "the" ++ big.s ! Sup ! AAdj ++ house.s ! Sg ! toCase c ; n = Sg ; p = P3 } ; --3 Two-place adjectives -- -- A two-place adjective is an adjective with a preposition used before -- the complement. Preposition = Str ; AdjCompl = Adjective ** {s2 : Preposition} ; complAdj : AdjCompl -> NounPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \related,john -> {s = \\a => related.s ! a ++ related.s2 ++ john.s ! AccP ; p = False } ; --3 Modification of common nouns -- -- The two main functions of adjective are in predication ("John is old") -- and in modification ("an old man"). Predication will be defined -- later, in the chapter on verbs. -- -- Modification must pay attention to pre- and post-noun -- adjectives: "big car"/"car bigger than X" modCommNounPhrase : AdjPhrase -> CommNounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \big, car -> {s = \\n => if_then_else (Case => Str) big.p (\\c => big.s ! AAdj ++ car.s ! n ! c) (table {Nom => car.s ! n ! Nom ++ big.s ! AAdj ; Gen => variants {}}) ; g = car.g } ; --2 Function expressions -- A function expression is a common noun together with the -- preposition prefixed to its argument ("mother of x"). -- The type is analogous to two-place adjectives and transitive verbs. Function = CommNounPhrase ** {s2 : Preposition} ; -- The application of a function gives, in the first place, a common noun: -- "mother/mothers of John". From this, other rules of the resource grammar -- give noun phrases, such as "the mother of John", "the mothers of John", -- "the mothers of John and Mary", and "the mother of John and Mary" (the -- latter two corresponding to distributive and collective functions, -- respectively). Semantics will eventually tell when each -- of the readings is meaningful. appFunComm : Function -> NounPhrase -> CommNounPhrase = \mother,john -> {s = \\n => table { Gen => nonExist ; --- ? _ => mother.s ! n ! Nom ++ mother.s2 ++ john.s ! GenSP } ; g = mother.g } ; -- It is possible to use a function word as a common noun; the semantics is -- often existential or indexical. funAsCommNounPhrase : Function -> CommNounPhrase = noun2CommNounPhrase ; -- The following is an aggregate corresponding to the original function application -- producing "John's mother" and "the mother of John". It does not appear in the -- resource grammar API any longer. appFun : Bool -> Function -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \coll, mother,john -> let {n = john.n ; nf = if_then_else Number coll Sg n} in variants { defNounPhrase nf (appFunComm mother john) ; npGenDet nf noNum john mother } ; -- The commonest case is functions with the preposition "of". funOf : CommNoun -> Function = \mother -> mother ** {s2 = "of"} ; funOfReg : Str -> Gender -> Function = \mother,g -> funOf (nounReg mother ** {g = g}) ; -- Two-place functions add one argument place. Function2 = Function ** {s3 : Preposition} ; -- There application starts by filling the first place. appFun2 : Function2 -> NounPhrase -> Function = \train, paris -> {s = \\n,c => train.s ! n ! c ++ train.s2 ++ paris.s ! AccP ; g = train.g ; s2 = train.s3 } ; --2 Verbs -- --3 Verb phrases -- -- The syntactic verb phrase form type, which includes compound tenses, -- is defined as follows. param Anteriority = Simul | Anter ; Tense = Pres | Pas | Fut ; VerbForm = VInd Tense Anteriority Number Person | VCond Anteriority | VInf Anteriority | VImp ; -- This is how the syntactic verb phrase forms are realized as -- inflectional forms of verbs. oper {- VGrp : Type = {s,s2 : Str ; isAux : Bool} inflVerb : VerbP3 -> Bool -> VerbForm -> VGrp = \verb,b,v -> let simple : Bool -> Str -> VGrp = \s -> {s = s ; s2 = [] ; isAux = False} ; s = if_then_Str b (walk.s ! v ++ walk.s1) (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) ; s ; s2 = [] ; isAux = False} ; in case v of { VInd Pres Simul n p => simple b (indicVerb verb p n) ; VInd Pas Simul n p => simple b (verb.s ! Past n) ; VInd Fut Simul n p => compos (will b) infin ; VInd t Anter n p => compos (have b t) pastp ; VCond a => compos (would b) infin ; indicVerb : VerbP3 -> Person -> Number -> Str = \v,p,n -> case n of { Sg => v.s ! Indic p ; Pl => v.s ! Indic P2 } ; predVerb : Verb -> VerbGroup = \walk -> {s = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (walk.s ! v ++ walk.s1) (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) ; s2 = \\b,_ => if_then_Str b [] (walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s1) ; isAuxT = False ; isAuxF = True } ; VerbGrp = { s : Bool => VerbForm => Str ; s2 : Bool => Number => Str ; isAuxT : Bool ; isAuxF : Bool } ; -} -- Verb phrases are discontinuous: the two parts of a verb phrase are -- (s) an inflected verb, (s2) infinitive and complement. -- For instance: "doesn't" - "walk" ; "isn't" - "old" ; "is" - "a man" -- There's also a parameter telling if the verb is an auxiliary: -- this is needed in question. VerbGroup = { s : Bool => VForm => Str ; s2 : Bool => Number => Str ; isAuxT : Bool ; isAuxF : Bool } ; VerbPhrase = VerbP3 ** {s2 : Number => Str ; isAux : Bool} ; predVerbGroup : Bool -> VerbGroup -> VerbPhrase = \b,vg -> { s = vg.s ! b ; s2 = vg.s2 ! b ; isAux = if_then_else Bool b vg.isAuxT vg.isAuxF } ; -- From the inflection table, we selecting the finite form as function -- of person and number: indicVerb : VerbP3 -> Person -> Number -> Str = \v,p,n -> case n of { Sg => v.s ! Indic p ; Pl => v.s ! Indic P2 } ; -- A simple verb can be made into a verb phrase with an empty complement. -- There are two versions, depending on if we want to negate the verb. -- N.B. negation is *not* a function applicable to a verb phrase, since -- double negations with "don't" are not grammatical. predVerb : Verb -> VerbGroup = \walk -> {s = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (walk.s ! v ++ walk.s1) (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) ; s2 = \\b,_ => if_then_Str b [] (walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s1) ; isAuxT = False ; isAuxF = True } ; -- Sometimes we want to extract the verb part of a verb phrase. verbOfPhrase : VerbPhrase -> VerbP3 = \v -> {s = v.s} ; -- Verb phrases can also be formed from adjectives ("is old"), -- common nouns ("is a man"), and noun phrases ("ist John"). -- The third rule is overgenerating: "is every man" has to be ruled out -- on semantic grounds. predAdjective : Adjective -> VerbGroup = \old -> {s = beOrNotBe ; s2 = \\_,_ => old.s ! AAdj ; isAuxT, isAuxF = True } ; predCommNoun : CommNoun -> VerbGroup = \man -> {s = beOrNotBe ; s2 = \\_,n => indefNoun n man ; isAuxT, isAuxF = True } ; predNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \john -> {s = beOrNotBe ; s2 = \\_,_ => john.s ! NomP ; isAuxT, isAuxF = True } ; predAdverb : Adverb -> VerbGroup = \elsewhere -> {s = beOrNotBe ; s2 = \\_,_ => elsewhere.s ; isAuxT, isAuxF = True } ; -- We use an auxiliary giving all forms of "be". beOrNotBe : Bool => VForm => Str = \\b => if_then_else (VForm => Str) b verbBe.s (table { InfImp => contractNot "do" ++ "be" ; Indic P1 => "am" ++ "not" ; v => contractNot (verbBe.s ! v) }) ; --3 Transitive verbs -- -- Transitive verbs are verbs with a preposition for the complement, -- in analogy with two-place adjectives and functions. -- One might prefer to use the term "2-place verb", since -- "transitive" traditionally means that the inherent preposition is empty. -- Such a verb is one with a *direct object*. TransVerb : Type = Verb ** {s3 : Preposition} ; -- The rule for using transitive verbs is the complementization rule. -- Particles produce free variation: before or after the complement -- ("I switch on the TV" / "I switch the TV on"). complTransVerb : TransVerb -> NounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \lookat,john -> let lookatjohn = bothWays lookat.s1 (lookat.s3 ++ john.s ! AccP) in {s = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (lookat.s ! v) (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) ; s2 = \\b,_ => if_then_Str b lookatjohn (lookat.s ! InfImp ++ lookatjohn) ; isAuxT = False ; isAuxF = True } ; -- Verbs that take direct object and a particle: mkTransVerbPart : VerbP3 -> Str -> TransVerb = \turn,off -> {s = turn.s ; s1 = off ; s3 = []} ; -- Verbs that take prepositional object, no particle: mkTransVerb : VerbP3 -> Str -> TransVerb = \wait,for -> {s = wait.s ; s1 = [] ; s3 = for} ; -- Verbs that take direct object, no particle: mkTransVerbDir : VerbP3 -> TransVerb = \love -> mkTransVerbPart love [] ; -- Transitive verbs with accusative objects can be used passively. -- The function does not check that the verb is transitive. -- Therefore, the function can also be used for "he is swum", etc. -- The syntax is the same as for adjectival predication. passVerb : Verb -> VerbGroup = \love -> predAdjective (adj2adjPhrase (regAdjective (love.s ! PPart))) ; -- Transitive verbs can also be used reflexively. -- But to formalize this we must make verb phrases depend on a person parameter. --- reflTransVerb : TransVerb -> VerbGroup = \love -> -- Transitive verbs can be used elliptically as verbs. The semantics -- is left to applications. The definition is trivial, due to record -- subtyping. transAsVerb : TransVerb -> Verb = \love -> love ; -- *Ditransitive verbs* are verbs with three argument places. -- We treat so far only the rule in which the ditransitive -- verb takes both complements to form a verb phrase. DitransVerb = TransVerb ** {s4 : Preposition} ; mkDitransVerb : Verb -> Preposition -> Preposition -> DitransVerb = \v,p1,p2 -> v ** {s3 = p1 ; s4 = p2} ; complDitransVerb : DitransVerb -> NounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> VerbGroup = \give,you,beer -> let youbeer = give.s1 ++ give.s3 ++ you.s ! AccP ++ give.s4 ++ beer.s ! AccP in {s = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (give.s ! v) (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) ; s2 = \\b,_ => if_then_Str b youbeer (give.s ! InfImp ++ youbeer) ; isAuxT = False ; isAuxF = True } ; --2 Adverbials -- -- Adverbials are not inflected (we ignore comparison, and treat -- compared adverbials as separate expressions; this could be done another way). -- We distinguish between post- and pre-verbal adverbs. Adverb : Type = SS ** {p : Bool} ; advPre : Str -> Adverb = \seldom -> ss seldom ** {p = False} ; advPost : Str -> Adverb = \well -> ss well ** {p = True} ; -- N.B. this rule generates the cyclic parsing rule $VP#2 ::= VP#2$ -- and cannot thus be parsed. adVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Adverb -> VerbPhrase = \sings, well -> let {postp = orB well.p sings.isAux} in { s = \\v => (if_then_else Str postp [] well.s) ++ sings.s ! v ; s2 = \\n => sings.s2 ! n ++ (if_then_else Str postp well.s []) ; isAux = sings.isAux } ; advAdjPhrase : SS -> AdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \very, good -> {s = \\a => very.s ++ good.s ! a ; p = good.p } ; -- Adverbials are typically generated by prefixing prepositions. -- The rule for creating locative noun phrases by the preposition "in" -- is a little shaky, since other prepositions may be preferred ("on", "at"). prepPhrase : Preposition -> NounPhrase -> Adverb = \on, it -> advPost (on ++ it.s ! AccP) ; locativeNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Adverb = prepPhrase "in" ; -- This is a source of the "mann with a telescope" ambiguity, and may produce -- strange things, like "cars always" (while "cars today" is OK). -- Semantics will have to make finer distinctions among adverbials. -- -- N.B. the genitive case created in this way would not make sense. advCommNounPhrase : CommNounPhrase -> Adverb -> CommNounPhrase = \car,today -> {s = \\n => table { Nom => car.s ! n ! Nom ++ today.s ; Gen => nonExist } ; g = car.g } ; --2 Sentences -- -- Sentences are not inflected in this fragment of English without tense. Sentence : Type = SS ; -- This is the traditional $S -> NP VP$ rule. It takes care of -- agreement between subject and verb. Recall that the VP may already -- contain negation. predVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Sentence = \john,walks -> ss (john.s ! NomP ++ indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walks) john.p john.n ++ walks.s2 ! john.n) ; --3 Sentence-complement verbs -- -- Sentence-complement verbs take sentences as complements. SentenceVerb : Type = Verb ; -- To generate "says that John walks" / "doesn't say that John walks": complSentVerb : SentenceVerb -> Sentence -> VerbGroup = \say,johnruns -> let {thatjohnruns = optStr "that" ++ johnruns.s} in {s = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (say.s ! v) (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) ; s2 = \\b,_ => if_then_Str b thatjohnruns (say.s ! InfImp ++ thatjohnruns) ; isAuxT = False ; isAuxF = True } ; --3 Verb-complement verbs -- -- Sentence-complement verbs take verb phrases as complements. -- They can be auxiliaries ("can", "must") or ordinary verbs -- ("try"); this distinction cannot be done in the multilingual -- API and leads to some anomalies in English, such as the necessity -- to create the infinitive form "to be able to" for "can" so that -- the construction can be iterated, and the corresponding complication -- in the parameter structure. VerbVerb : Type = Verb ** {isAux : Bool} ; -- To generate "can walk"/"can't walk"; "tries to walk"/"does not try to walk": -- The contraction of "not" is not provided, since it would require changing -- the verb parameter type. complVerbVerb : VerbVerb -> VerbGroup -> VerbGroup = \try,run -> let taux = try.isAux ; to = if_then_Str taux [] "to" ; dont = table VForm {v => if_then_Str taux (try.s ! v ++ "not") -- can not (contractNot (verbP3Do.s ! v)) -- doesn't ... } ; trnot = if_then_Str taux [] -- (try.s ! InfImp ++ try.s1) ; -- ... try in {s = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (try.s ! v ++ try.s1) (dont ! v) ; s2 = \\b,v => if_then_Str b (to ++ run.s ! True ! InfImp ++ run.s2 ! True ! v) (trnot ++ run.s ! True ! InfImp ++ run.s2 ! True ! v) ; isAuxT = taux ; isAuxF = True } ; -- The three most important example auxiliaries. mkVerbAux : (_,_,_,_: Str) -> VerbVerb = \beable, can, could, beenable -> {s = table { InfImp => beable ; Indic _ => can ; Past _ => could ; PPart => beenable } ; s1 = [] ; isAux = True } ; vvCan : VerbVerb = mkVerbAux ["be able to"] "can" "could" ["been able to"] ; vvMust : VerbVerb = mkVerbAux ["have to"] "must" ["had to"] ["had to"] ; --2 Sentences missing noun phrases -- -- This is one instance of Gazdar's *slash categories*, corresponding to his -- $S/NP$. -- We cannot have - nor would we want to have - a productive slash-category former. -- Perhaps a handful more will be needed. -- -- Notice that the slash category has a similar relation to sentences as -- transitive verbs have to verbs: it's like a *sentence taking a complement*. -- However, we need something more to distinguish its use in direct questions: -- not just "you see" but ("whom") "do you see". -- -- The particle always follows the verb, but the preposition can fly: -- "whom you make it up with" / "with whom you make it up". SentenceSlashNounPhrase = {s : Bool => Str ; s2 : Preposition} ; slashTransVerb : Bool -> NounPhrase -> TransVerb -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase = \b,You,lookat -> let {you = You.s ! NomP ; looks = indicVerb {s = lookat.s} You.p You.n ; look = lookat.s ! InfImp ; do = indicVerb verbP3Do You.p You.n ; dont = contractNot do ; up = lookat.s1 } in {s = table { True => if_then_else Str b do dont ++ you ++ look ++ up ; False => you ++ if_then_else Str b looks (dont ++ look) ++ up } ; s2 = lookat.s3 } ; thereIs : NounPhrase -> Sentence = \abar -> predVerbPhrase (case abar.n of { Sg => nameNounPhrase (nameReg "there") ; Pl => {s = \\_ => "there" ; n = Pl ; p = P3} }) (predVerbGroup True (predNounPhrase abar)) ; --2 Relative pronouns and relative clauses -- -- As described in $types.Eng.gf$, relative pronouns are inflected in -- gender (human/nonhuman), number, and case. -- -- We get the simple relative pronoun ("who"/"which"/"whom"/"whose"/"that"/$""$) -- from $morpho.Eng.gf$. identRelPron : RelPron = relPron ; funRelPron : Function -> RelPron -> RelPron = \mother,which -> {s = \\g,n,c => "the" ++ mother.s ! n ! Nom ++ mother.s2 ++ which.s ! g ! n ! GenSP } ; -- Relative clauses can be formed from both verb phrases ("who walks") and -- slash expressions ("whom you see", "on which you sit" / "that you sit on"). RelClause : Type = {s : Gender => Number => Str} ; relVerbPhrase : RelPron -> VerbPhrase -> RelClause = \who,walks -> {s = \\g, n => who.s ! g ! n ! NomP ++ indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walks) P3 n ++ walks.s2 ! n } ; relSlash : RelPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> RelClause = \who,yousee -> {s = \\g,n => let {youSee = yousee.s ! False} in variants { who.s ! g ! n ! AccP ++ youSee ++ yousee.s2 ; yousee.s2 ++ who.s ! g ! n ! GenSP ++ youSee } } ; -- A 'degenerate' relative clause is the one often used in mathematics, e.g. -- "number x such that x is even". relSuch : Sentence -> RelClause = \A -> {s = \\_,_ => "such" ++ "that" ++ A.s} ; -- The main use of relative clauses is to modify common nouns. -- The result is a common noun, out of which noun phrases can be formed -- by determiners. No comma is used before these relative clause. modRelClause : CommNounPhrase -> RelClause -> CommNounPhrase = \man,whoruns -> {s = \\n,c => man.s ! n ! c ++ whoruns.s ! man.g ! n ; g = man.g } ; --2 Interrogative pronouns -- -- If relative pronouns are adjective-like, interrogative pronouns are -- noun-phrase-like. IntPron : Type = {s : NPForm => Str ; n : Number} ; -- In analogy with relative pronouns, we have a rule for applying a function -- to a relative pronoun to create a new one. funIntPron : Function -> IntPron -> IntPron = \mother,which -> {s = \\c => "the" ++ mother.s ! which.n ! Nom ++ mother.s2 ++ which.s ! GenSP ; n = which.n } ; -- There is a variety of simple interrogative pronouns: -- "which house", "who", "what". nounIntPron : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> IntPron = \n, car -> {s = \\c => "which" ++ car.s ! n ! toCase c ; n = n } ; intPronWho : Number -> IntPron = \num -> { s = table { NomP => "who" ; AccP => variants {"who" ; "whom"} ; GenP => "whose" ; GenSP => "whom" } ; n = num } ; intPronWhat : Number -> IntPron = \num -> { s = table { GenP => "what's" ; _ => "what" } ; n = num } ; --2 Utterances -- By utterances we mean whole phrases, such as -- 'can be used as moves in a language game': indicatives, questions, imperative, -- and one-word utterances. The rules are far from complete. -- -- N.B. we have not included rules for texts, which we find we cannot say much -- about on this level. In semantically rich GF grammars, texts, dialogues, etc, -- will of course play an important role as categories not reducible to utterances. -- An example is proof texts, whose semantics show a dependence between premises -- and conclusions. Another example is intersentential anaphora. Utterance = SS ; indicUtt : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> ss (x.s ++ ".") ; interrogUtt : Question -> Utterance = \x -> ss (x.s ! DirQ ++ "?") ; --2 Questions -- -- Questions are either direct ("are you happy") or indirect -- ("if/whether you are happy"). param QuestForm = DirQ | IndirQ ; oper Question = SS1 QuestForm ; --3 Yes-no questions -- -- Yes-no questions are used both independently -- ("does John walk" / "if John walks") -- and after interrogative adverbials -- ("why does John walk" / "why John walks"). -- -- It is economical to handle with all these cases by the one -- rule, $questVerbPhrase'$. The word ("ob" / "whether") never appears -- if there is an adverbial. questVerbPhrase : NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = questVerbPhrase' False ; questVerbPhrase' : Bool -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \adv,john,walk -> {s = table { DirQ => if_then_else Str walk.isAux (indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walk) john.p john.n ++ john.s ! NomP ++ walk.s2 ! john.n) (indicVerb verbP3Do john.p john.n ++ john.s ! NomP ++ walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s2 ! john.n) ; IndirQ => if_then_else Str adv [] (variants {"if" ; "whether"}) ++ (predVerbPhrase john walk).s } } ; isThere : NounPhrase -> Question = \abar -> questVerbPhrase (case abar.n of { Sg => nameNounPhrase (nameReg "there") ; Pl => {s = \\_ => "there" ; n = Pl ; p = P3} }) (predVerbGroup True (predNounPhrase abar)) ; --3 Wh-questions -- -- Wh-questions are of two kinds: ones that are like $NP - VP$ sentences, -- others that are line $S/NP - NP$ sentences. intVerbPhrase : IntPron -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \who,walk -> {s = \\_ => who.s ! NomP ++ indicVerb (verbOfPhrase walk) P3 who.n ++ walk.s2 ! who.n } ; intSlash : IntPron -> SentenceSlashNounPhrase -> Question = \who,yousee -> {s = \\q => let {youSee = case q of { DirQ => yousee.s ! True ; IndirQ => yousee.s ! False } } in variants { who.s ! AccP ++ youSee ++ yousee.s2 ; yousee.s2 ++ who.s ! GenSP ++ youSee } } ; --3 Interrogative adverbials -- -- These adverbials will be defined in the lexicon: they include -- "when", "where", "how", "why", etc, which are all invariant one-word -- expressions. In addition, they can be formed by adding prepositions -- to interrogative pronouns, in the same way as adverbials are formed -- from noun phrases. IntAdverb = SS ; prepIntAdverb : Preposition -> IntPron -> IntAdverb = \at, whom -> ss (at ++ whom.s ! AccP) ; -- A question adverbial can be applied to anything, and whether this makes -- sense is a semantic question. questAdverbial : IntAdverb -> NounPhrase -> VerbPhrase -> Question = \why, you, walk -> {s = \\q => why.s ++ (questVerbPhrase' True you walk).s ! q} ; --2 Imperatives -- -- We only consider second-person imperatives. Imperative = SS1 Number ; imperVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Imperative = \walk -> {s = \\n => walk.s ! InfImp ++ walk.s2 ! n} ; imperUtterance : Number -> Imperative -> Utterance = \n,I -> ss (I.s ! n ++ "!") ; --2 Sentence adverbials -- -- This class covers adverbials such as "otherwise", "therefore", which are prefixed -- to a sentence to form a phrase. advSentence : SS -> Sentence -> Utterance = \hence,itiseven -> ss (hence.s ++ itiseven.s ++ ".") ; --2 Coordination -- -- Coordination is to some extent orthogonal to the rest of syntax, and -- has been treated in a generic way in the module $CO$ in the file -- $coordination.gf$. The overall structure is independent of category, -- but there can be differences in parameter dependencies. -- --3 Conjunctions -- -- Coordinated phrases are built by using conjunctions, which are either -- simple ("and", "or") or distributed ("both - and", "either - or"). -- -- The conjunction has an inherent number, which is used when conjoining -- noun phrases: "John and Mary are..." vs. "John or Mary is..."; in the -- case of "or", the result is however plural if any of the disjuncts is. Conjunction = CO.Conjunction ** {n : Number} ; ConjunctionDistr = CO.ConjunctionDistr ** {n : Number} ; --3 Coordinating sentences -- -- We need a category of lists of sentences. It is a discontinuous -- category, the parts corresponding to 'init' and 'last' segments -- (rather than 'head' and 'tail', because we have to keep track of the slot between -- the last two elements of the list). A list has at least two elements. ListSentence : Type = SD2 ; twoSentence : (_,_ : Sentence) -> ListSentence = CO.twoSS ; consSentence : ListSentence -> Sentence -> ListSentence = CO.consSS CO.comma ; -- To coordinate a list of sentences by a simple conjunction, we place -- it between the last two elements; commas are put in the other slots, -- e.g. "du rauchst, er trinkt und ich esse". conjunctSentence : Conjunction -> ListSentence -> Sentence = \c,xs -> ss (CO.conjunctX c xs) ; -- To coordinate a list of sentences by a distributed conjunction, we place -- the first part (e.g. "either") in front of the first element, the second -- part ("or") between the last two elements, and commas in the other slots. -- For sentences this is really not used. conjunctDistrSentence : ConjunctionDistr -> ListSentence -> Sentence = \c,xs -> ss (CO.conjunctDistrX c xs) ; --3 Coordinating adjective phrases -- -- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is a prefix adjective -- if and only if all elements are prefix. ListAdjPhrase : Type = {s1,s2 : AForm => Str ; p : Bool} ; twoAdjPhrase : (_,_ : AdjPhrase) -> ListAdjPhrase = \x,y -> CO.twoTable AForm x y ** {p = andB x.p y.p} ; consAdjPhrase : ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase -> ListAdjPhrase = \xs,x -> CO.consTable AForm CO.comma xs x ** {p = andB xs.p x.p} ; conjunctAdjPhrase : Conjunction -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctTable AForm c xs ** {p = xs.p} ; conjunctDistrAdjPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListAdjPhrase -> AdjPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctDistrTable AForm c xs ** {p = xs.p} ; --3 Coordinating noun phrases -- -- The structure is the same as for sentences. The result is either always plural -- or plural if any of the components is, depending on the conjunction. ListNounPhrase : Type = {s1,s2 : NPForm => Str ; n : Number ; p : Person} ; twoNounPhrase : (_,_ : NounPhrase) -> ListNounPhrase = \x,y -> CO.twoTable NPForm x y ** {n = conjNumber x.n y.n ; p = conjPerson x.p y.p} ; consNounPhrase : ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase -> ListNounPhrase = \xs,x -> CO.consTable NPForm CO.comma xs x ** {n = conjNumber xs.n x.n ; p = conjPerson xs.p x.p} ; conjunctNounPhrase : Conjunction -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctTable NPForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; p = xs.p} ; conjunctDistrNounPhrase : ConjunctionDistr -> ListNounPhrase -> NounPhrase = \c,xs -> CO.conjunctDistrTable NPForm c xs ** {n = conjNumber c.n xs.n ; p = xs.p} ; -- We have to define a calculus of numbers of persons. For numbers, -- it is like the conjunction with $Pl$ corresponding to $False$. conjNumber : Number -> Number -> Number = \m,n -> case of { => Sg ; _ => Pl } ; -- For persons, we let the latter argument win ("either you or I am absent" -- but "either I or you are absent"). This is not quite clear. conjPerson : Person -> Person -> Person = \_,p -> p ; --2 Subjunction -- -- Subjunctions ("when", "if", etc) -- are a different way to combine sentences than conjunctions. -- The main clause can be a sentences, an imperatives, or a question, -- but the subjoined clause must be a sentence. -- -- There are uniformly two variant word orders, e.g. -- "if you smoke I get angry" -- and "I get angry if you smoke". Subjunction = SS ; subjunctSentence : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Sentence -> Sentence = \if, A, B -> ss (subjunctVariants if A.s B.s) ; subjunctImperative : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Imperative -> Imperative = \if, A, B -> {s = \\n => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! n)} ; subjunctQuestion : Subjunction -> Sentence -> Question -> Question = \if, A, B -> {s = \\q => subjunctVariants if A.s (B.s ! q)} ; subjunctVariants : Subjunction -> Str -> Str -> Str = \if,A,B -> variants {if.s ++ A ++ "," ++ B ; B ++ "," ++ if.s ++ A} ; subjunctVerbPhrase : VerbPhrase -> Subjunction -> Sentence -> VerbPhrase = \V, if, A -> adVerbPhrase V (advPost (if.s ++ A.s)) ; --2 One-word utterances -- -- An utterance can consist of one phrase of almost any category, -- the limiting case being one-word utterances. These -- utterances are often (but not always) in what can be called the -- default form of a category, e.g. the nominative. -- This list is far from exhaustive. useNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> Utterance = \john -> postfixSS "." (defaultNounPhrase john) ; useCommonNounPhrase : Number -> CommNounPhrase -> Utterance = \n,car -> useNounPhrase (indefNounPhrase n car) ; useRegularName : SS -> NounPhrase = \john -> nameNounPhrase (nameReg john.s) ; -- Here are some default forms. defaultNounPhrase : NounPhrase -> SS = \john -> ss (john.s ! NomP) ; defaultQuestion : Question -> SS = \whoareyou -> ss (whoareyou.s ! DirQ) ; defaultSentence : Sentence -> Utterance = \x -> x ; } ;